MAGNESIUM - HEALTH BENEFITS, DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS, CAUSES AND RISK FACTORS, GUIDE TO BEST FORMS OF MAGNESIUM AND MAGNESIUM RICH-FOODS

Magnesium is a vital mineral for the human body, quietly working behind the scenes as a true unsung hero. It supports almost every aspect of our health, participating in more than 300 essential enzymatic reactions and influencing approximately 80% of the body’s known metabolic functions.

From the transmission of genetic information to the absorption of other vitamins and trace elements, from the activation of amino acids to countless other processes, magnesium is tirelessly at work—often without us even noticing.

It is also indispensable for energy production, blood pressure regulation, and the proper functioning of our muscles and nerves. In this article, we’ll take a closer look at all these remarkable roles and reveal why this mineral deserves our attention and care.

But here’s something you might not know: magnesium deficiency is far more common than we realize, ranking second only to vitamin D—especially in developed countries.

Around 60% of adults are estimated to get less magnesium than their bodies need. Studies link this shortage to a variety of health concerns, highlighting the silent but crucial role magnesium plays in keeping us healthy.

Why is magnesium deficiency so widespread? The main culprits are modern dietary habits, certain medications, and changes in agricultural practices that have, over the last century, reduced the mineral content of vegetables by as much as 80–90%.

Another reason is simply a lack of awareness: until recently, little attention has been given to the many forms of magnesium, some absorbed far better than others, or to just how essential magnesium is for our wellbeing.

This guide aims to change that. You’ll discover which forms of magnesium might suit you best—while options like magnesium glycinate and magnesium citrate are both excellent, one may match your needs better than another. We’ll also cover which forms you might want to avoid, why magnesium deficiency can be tricky to detect, and why standard blood and urine tests often fail to tell the full story.

By taking a few minutes to explore this guide, you’ll even learn how many cups of spinach or grams of almonds you would need each day to meet your magnesium requirements! You’ll also learn about the main causes and risk groups for deficiency, the signs and symptoms to watch for, magnesium’s many roles in the body, which forms are best absorbed, the supplements worth your attention, and why magnesium is so important for children and during pregnancy.

So, let’s celebrate this quiet hero and uncover the ways it keeps our bodies strong, our minds alert, and our hearts steady. Let’s get started.

1. Magnesium Deficiency – Possible Causes and Symptoms

According to various sources, between 60–90% of people may be affected by a deficiency in one of the body’s most vital minerals – magnesium – and there are several possible reasons behind this concerning trend (8, 23).

1. 1. Causes and Risk Factors for Magnesium Deficiency

1. 1. 1. Depleted soils and agricultural practices

One major factor contributing to magnesium deficiency is the depletion of minerals in our soils. Decades of intensive cultivation, combined with the widespread use of pesticides, have significantly reduced the mineral content of the earth in which our food is grown.

Quite simply, if the soil lacks nutrients, plants have nowhere to obtain them. Research suggests that the mineral content in vegetables has dropped by as much as 80–90% over the last century (23).

1. 1. 2. Inadequate or unbalanced diets and lifestyle factors

In modern life, magnesium is often hard to get but easy to lose. Poor dietary habits—particularly among the elderly or those who eat too little—combined with lifestyle choices such as frequent alcohol consumption, high caffeine intake (from coffee, energy drinks, or sodas), excessive sweets, or vitamin E deficiency can all lead to magnesium depletion.

For example, caffeine and alcohol increase magnesium excretion through the kidneys, which in turn raises the body’s demand for this mineral.

If your diet is high in stimulants or sugary drinks but low in leafy greens, fresh vegetables, and raw, unprocessed nuts and seeds, you may be at greater risk of magnesium deficiency (23).

1. 1. 3. Food preparation and processing

Foods processed at high temperatures or excessively refined often lose much of their nutritional value. Today, it’s estimated that around 60% of the average diet consists of processed foods. Common preparation methods such as grain bleaching or boiling vegetables can reduce magnesium content by up to 80% (23).

1. 1. 4. Other dietary inhibitors

Certain foods and drinks can interfere with magnesium absorption. Beverages high in phosphorus—such as many soft drinks—along with low-protein diets (less than 30 mg/day), or foods rich in phytates, polyphenols, and oxalic acid (found in items like rice and some nuts) can bind with magnesium to form insoluble compounds.

This reduces the body’s ability to absorb and utilise the mineral effectively (23).

1. 1. 5. Mental health and stress

Prolonged stress and sustained mental strain can gradually deplete the body’s magnesium reserves, making it harder to maintain optimal levels.

1. 1. 6. Underlying health conditions

Certain health problems can increase the body’s demand for magnesium or reduce its absorption. These include type 2 diabetes, digestive disorders such as Crohn’s disease, celiac disease, or malabsorption in the small intestine, kidney issues, and prolonged periods of vomiting or diarrhoea (6, 8, 23, 24).

1. 1. 7. Medications

Several medications may lower magnesium levels when taken for extended periods. These include:

• Diuretics (e.g., furosemide, bumetanide) – increase urine output, leading to greater mineral loss.
• Proton pump inhibitors – reduce stomach acid production (commonly prescribed for reflux).
• Laxatives – may cause excessive loss of magnesium through the digestive tract.
• Heart medications – certain preparations can interfere with magnesium balance.
• Antacids (e.g., omeprazole) – by increasing gastrointestinal pH, they can impair magnesium absorption.
• Tacrolimus – an immunosuppressive macrolide antibiotic.
• Oral contraceptives – prolonged use may impact mineral levels.
• Antibiotics (e.g., ciprofloxacin) – some can affect magnesium retention (6, 8, 23, 24).

1. 1. 8. Physical exertion

Intense physical activity and heavy sweating can significantly reduce magnesium stores, as sweat carries away not only magnesium but also other essential minerals. In such cases, the body’s magnesium needs may be higher (6, 8, 23, 24).

1. 1. 9. Pregnancy and breastfeeding

During these life stages, a woman’s body requires not only more magnesium but also increased amounts of several other vitamins and minerals to support both mother and child (6, 8, 23, 24).

1. 1. 10. Age-related needs

Magnesium requirements tend to increase during a woman’s transition into menopause, after menopause, and generally with advancing age.

1. 1. 11. Nutrient interactions

Calcium and magnesium are closely linked. High calcium intake—whether from supplements or frequent consumption of dairy products—may increase the risk of magnesium deficiency (6, 8, 23, 24).

1. 1. 12. Drinking water composition

Drinking water can supply roughly 10% of the recommended daily magnesium intake. However, widespread use of softened or purified tap water may contribute to deficiency because filtration and chemical processes can remove or bind magnesium.

This binding, known as complexation, occurs when an atom or compound forms a stable complex with another atom, rendering it less available for absorption.

Additionally, fluoride—present in varying amounts in drinking water depending on the region—can bind to magnesium and create insoluble compounds. Over time, this may quietly lower magnesium levels, particularly in households that rely on water softeners or filtered tap water (6, 8, 23, 24).

1. 1. 13. Geographical and dietary advantages

People living near the ocean (a natural magnesium source), eating produce grown in magnesium-rich soils, and drinking magnesium-rich water are far less likely to face deficiency. Unfortunately, this scenario is the exception rather than the rule for most of the world’s population (6, 8, 23, 24).

1. 2. Symptoms of Magnesium Deficiency

Magnesium plays a role in the functioning of the brain and every organ system, which is why some researchers suggest that a lack of this mineral may set the stage for more health problems than the deficiency of any other nutrient.

Diagnosing magnesium deficiency can be challenging, as standard blood tests often fail to show the full picture.

Only a tiny fraction—about 0.8%—of the body’s magnesium is present in the blood: 0.3% in serum and 0.5% in red blood cells. The normal serum magnesium range is typically between 0.65 and 1.0 mmol/L. The rest is stored in soft tissues (19%), muscles (27%), and bones (53%).

Of the magnesium stored in bones, up to one-third is “exchangeable,” meaning it can be mobilized when needed. While total bone magnesium levels can shift with age, bones remain the body’s main storage and reserve site.

This explains why serum magnesium measurements often do not reflect the true status of magnesium in your body (23).

Because of this, magnesium deficiency often goes undetected. Many people take medications to relieve symptoms that—at least in some cases—could be alleviated simply through better dietary intake or supplementation of magnesium. Recognizing possible warning signs is therefore important.

Although the symptoms listed below can be linked to other conditions, experiencing several of them at the same time may point to an underlying magnesium deficiency. We will explore this further in the section Why it is difficult to measure magnesium levels in the body and why magnesium deficiency often goes undiagnosed. In truth, nearly anyone can experience signs of low magnesium—it’s just that we often fail to recognize them.

Possible signs of magnesium deficiency include:

• Muscle spasms and cramps, including painful leg cramps, as muscle relaxation and growth depend on magnesium
• Loss of appetite
• Constipation
• Nausea and vomiting
• Fatigue and weakness
• Tremors, tingling, or a prickling sensation (like “pins and needles”) in the hands and feet
• Heightened nervous excitability
• Daytime drowsiness and difficulty sleeping
• Irregular heartbeat or palpitations
• High blood pressure
• Persistent muscle tension and a stiff body
• Stress
• Mood and behavioral changes
• Memory problems or mental fog
• Melancholy and depression
• Irritability and aggression
• Hyperactivity, attention deficit disorder (ADHD), or obsessive-compulsive tendencies
• Twitching eyelids
• Tendonitis
• Ongoing tiredness and nervousness
• Pain such as muscle aches, chronic back pain, or headaches
• Dental cavities and underdeveloped jaw structure, leading to insufficient space for teeth
• Conditions potentially linked to magnesium deficiency:

     - Fibromyalgia

     - Diabetes

     - Osteoporosis (magnesium is even more vital to bone health than calcium)

     - Chronic fatigue syndrome

     - Kidney stones and adrenal fatigue

     - Atrial fibrillation, cardiovascular diseases, and sudden cardiac death in individuals with heart failure (6, 32).

2. The Importance of Magnesium in the Human Body and the Potential Impact of Long-Term Deficiency on Mental and Physical Health

Some experts consider magnesium deficiency to be one of the most significant health concerns of our time, while others believe it is relatively rare.

Nevertheless, if your magnesium levels remain low for an extended period—whether due to underlying health conditions, alcoholism, or the use of certain medications—the risk of developing various disorders can increase substantially.

Below are some possible consequences that, according to certain sources, may be linked to prolonged magnesium deficiency. By reviewing them, it becomes clear just how vital magnesium is to the proper functioning of the body.

It is important to note that the studies referenced here address magnesium as a mineral in general, not any particular manufacturer’s supplement. Before beginning any supplement regimen, always consult with your healthcare provider.

2. 1. Arterial Calcification and Cardiovascular Health

Arterial calcification is, unfortunately, both one of the earliest and one of the more serious manifestations of long-term magnesium deficiency. Magnesium plays an essential role in supporting blood vessel and heart health, as well as in regulating calcium metabolism.

When magnesium levels are too low, conditions become more favorable for calcium deposits to form in the arteries.

This, in turn, raises the likelihood of cardiovascular diseases such as heart failure, ischemic heart disease, and heart attacks.

The mineral’s ability to help prevent excessive calcification is one reason why research has found that adequate magnesium intake is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease. In fact, in some countries, intravenous magnesium is administered to heart attack patients—meaning the mineral is delivered directly into the bloodstream through a vein—to help limit damage to the heart muscle, reduce the risk of severe arrhythmias, and lower the chances of death.

Several small studies appear to support this practice, but others that suggest no benefit have not been published. As a result, the true effectiveness of this approach remains somewhat uncertain (8, 9, 13, 15, 24).

2. 2. Muscle Spasms and Cramps

Muscle spasms and cramps are among the most noticeable signs of magnesium deficiency, as already mentioned earlier. Just as calcification can lead to stiffening of the arteries, it can also cause muscle tissue to become rigid, resulting in cramps and spasms.

Fortunately, ensuring adequate magnesium intake can help reduce the frequency and severity of these symptoms (8).

2. 3. Anxiety and Depression

Anxiety and depression affect millions worldwide. Could something as simple as magnesium help reduce these mental health challenges?

Research suggests the answer may be yes. One possible explanation, published in Psychology Today, describes the role magnesium plays in brain function:

“Magnesium is involved in the synapse between two neurons, working together with calcium and glutamate. Calcium and glutamate are known to be excitatory in nature and can be toxic in excess. They activate the NMDA* receptor. Magnesium can occupy the NMDA receptor without activating it—like a guard standing at the gate. When magnesium levels are low, that guard is absent, allowing calcium and glutamate to over-activate the receptor without restraint. Over time, this damages neurons and can ultimately lead to cell death. Once such damage occurs in the brain, it is not easy to reverse or repair.” (8, 10).

* NMDA receptor – N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are a type of L-glutamate receptor and ion channel found in neurons. They play a crucial role in learning, memory formation, and spatial memory.

2. 4. Hormonal Imbalance

If you experience pronounced mood swings before or after your menstrual period, it may be linked to magnesium deficiency.

Higher levels of estrogen or progesterone in the body can lower magnesium levels—one reason why pregnant women are more likely to experience leg cramps (8, 11).

According to Dr. Carolyn Dean, author of The Magnesium Miracle, menstrual cycle–related muscle cramps may also be influenced by magnesium status.

She recommends that women who experience menstrual discomfort, PMS, or cramps begin taking magnesium at the start of their cycle, before symptoms appear (8).

2. 5. High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)

Evidence suggests that individuals with the highest magnesium intake often have the healthiest blood pressure readings. A meta-analysis of existing studies concluded that magnesium supplementation can lower blood pressure, with the degree of reduction depending on the dosage.

However, the authors also emphasized that further research is needed to confirm this link (12, 15).

2. 6. Magnesium During Pregnancy

As with other hormonal changes, low magnesium levels may negatively affect both pregnancy health and mood.

The exact cause of morning sickness (or, as many women experience, all-day nausea) remains unclear. What is known is that when progesterone levels rise in the body, magnesium levels decrease.

According to Dr. Carolyn Dean, author of The Magnesium Miracle, hormonal fluctuations also influence magnesium status.

Elevated levels of progesterone and estrogen may therefore contribute to nausea. Many women have reported that restoring their magnesium levels—through diet or supplements—has helped reduce morning sickness symptoms (8, 17, 18).

Magnesium may also help lower hypertension and ease pregnancy-related leg cramps. Some sources suggest it could be linked to a reduced risk of preterm birth as well as relief from headaches (8, 17, 18).

2. 7. Low Energy Levels

Magnesium is essential for the cellular reactions that produce ATP—adenosine triphosphate—the body’s main energy currency. ATP powers numerous processes within cells, including muscle contraction and the transmission of nerve impulses.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is therefore the primary form of energy produced, stored, and used at the cellular level.

However, ATP can only be biologically active when bound to a magnesium ion (8, 19, 20).

In other words, without magnesium, the body cannot produce usable energy at the cellular level. This can lead to symptoms such as fatigue, low energy, loss of strength, and various related issues (8, 19, 20).

2. 8. Bone Health

When thinking about bone health, most people immediately associate it with calcium. While calcium is undeniably important, magnesium may be just as—if not more—critical. Magnesium supports skeletal health in the following key ways:

• Activating Vitamin D for Calcium Absorption. Magnesium plays a vital role in activating vitamin D, enabling the body to absorb calcium effectively. Together, magnesium and vitamin D are essential for many physiological functions across various organs. Magnesium helps activate vitamin D, which then regulates calcium and phosphate balance—key for bone growth and maintenance. In fact, every enzyme involved in vitamin D metabolism requires magnesium as a cofactor in enzymatic reactions within the liver and kidneys. This is why, when supplementing with vitamin D, it may also be necessary to take magnesium.
• Ensuring Proper Use of Calcium. Magnesium stimulates the hormone calcitonin, which draws calcium out of the muscles and soft tissues and directs it into the bones. This mechanism highlights why magnesium—not calcium alone—plays such a significant role in lowering the risk of osteoporosis, arthritis, arterial calcification, kidney stones, and even heart attacks (8, 21, 22).

2. 9. Sleeping Issues

While remedies like melatonin, chamomile, valerian, ashwagandha, passionflower, and lavender can all support restful sleep, magnesium is often described as the ultimate relaxation mineral — a term popularized by Dr. Mark Hyman.

This essential mineral helps to calm both the body and mind, paving the way for deep, restorative rest.

Magnesium also plays a critical role in maintaining the healthy function of GABA receptors in the brain.

GABA, a key neurotransmitter, signals the brain to shift into a tranquil state, making it easier to drift into peaceful sleep (8, 16).

2. 10. Supporting the Use of Other Vitamins and Minerals

Magnesium works in synergy with many other nutrients and is essential for their proper function. It is required for the optimal utilization of calcium, potassium, vitamin K, vitamin D, and numerous other vitamins and minerals (8).

2. 11. Magnesium, Restless Legs, and the Nervous System

Magnesium deficiency can manifest in a range of nervous system–related symptoms beyond anxiety and depression.

These may include panic attacks, irritability, agoraphobia (a fear of large open or public spaces), fatigue and exhaustion, headaches and migraines, heightened sensitivity to bright lights and loud sounds, restless legs syndrome, constipation, heart palpitations, and insomnia.

In this context, insomnia refers to persistent difficulties with falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoiding frequent awakenings during the night.

2. 12. The Link Between Magnesium and High Blood Sugar

Type 2 diabetes is frequently associated with both extracellular and intracellular magnesium deficiencies. This shortage is particularly common in individuals with poorly controlled diabetes, where long-term deficiency or even clinical hypomagnesemia may develop.

Magnesium plays an important role in insulin activity and glucose metabolism. Because insulin and glucose are key regulators of magnesium balance, adequate intracellular magnesium is necessary for effective insulin action, insulin-driven glucose uptake, and the regulation of vascular tone.

A low intracellular magnesium level in people with diabetes can impair tyrosine kinase activity — enzymes essential for processes such as cell growth, differentiation, migration, metabolism, and programmed cell death. This impairment can further worsen insulin resistance.

The primary reasons for magnesium deficiency in type 2 diabetes include insufficient dietary intake and increased urinary excretion. Both high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) and high insulin levels (hyperinsulinemia) can accelerate magnesium loss in the urine. Studies have also shown an inverse relationship between urinary magnesium loss, fasting blood glucose, and serum magnesium levels.

While most — though not all — clinical studies suggest that magnesium supplementation may be beneficial for people with diabetes, additional research is still needed to confirm these findings (25).

3. Magnesium Health Benefits

Although magnesium deficiency often goes unnoticed due to its subtle early signs, it is far from a nutrient where even a small shortage should be ignored.

Magnesium is a vital mineral, involved in over 300 essential metabolic reactions in the body, including energy production, blood pressure regulation, nerve signal transmission, and muscle contraction.

This means that without magnesium, your body simply cannot manage these critical processes as efficiently as it should.

While many whole foods—such as leafy greens, legumes, nuts, and seeds—contain magnesium, up to two-thirds of people in the Western world do not meet their magnesium needs through diet alone. In reality, it has become almost impossible to get enough magnesium from food (yes, our modern diet may not even contain half of what it used to).

You can read more about why the magnesium content of our food has become so uncertain [here].

Additionally, our bodies’ ability to absorb essential vitamins and minerals declines over time. Some experts believe that among middle-aged and older adults, as much as 80% of the population may not get enough magnesium from diet alone.

For this reason, even a nutrient-rich diet full of fresh, organically grown vegetables may not always provide sufficient magnesium, especially when the body’s needs increase due to stress, intense activity, or other demands.

Here are the main reasons to pay attention to magnesium—and what your body uses it for:

• Magnesium is the fourth most abundant mineral in the human body (Ca²⁺ > K⁺ > Na⁺ > Mg²⁺) and the second most common cation inside cells, right after potassium. At birth, the human body contains around 760 mg of magnesium, and by about 4–5 months of age, this amount rises to roughly 5 grams.
• Approximately 99% of the body’s magnesium is found in bones, muscles, and non-muscle soft tissues. Around 50–60% of magnesium is incorporated into bone hydroxyapatite (a complex calcium phosphate, Ca₅(PO₄)₃OH, which forms the main structural element of vertebrate bones). In fact, magnesium plays an even more critical role than calcium for healthy bones and teeth.
• Magnesium is a key component in more than 300 enzymes in your body. It’s essential for detoxifying your body, participating in energy metabolism and protein synthesis, and supporting countless physiological processes.
• It is also required for the synthesis of glutathione, a vital antioxidant, and is particularly important for brain health and cognitive functions. Magnesium supports your muscles and nervous system, helping reduce fatigue and exhaustion.
• Moreover, magnesium plays a role in cell division, meaning your body needs it directly for creating new cells and constantly renewing itself (35, 36, 37).

Reading all this, you can probably appreciate just how crucial this “nearly overlooked” mineral really is for your body—but how can you tell if you’re actually getting enough magnesium from your diet?

4. Sources of Magnesium and Magnesium-Rich Foods

The richest natural sources of magnesium include nuts, seeds, beans, dark green leafy vegetables, as well as cacao and fatty fish. Below, we provide approximate magnesium content for selected foods. You’ll soon learn why these values are considered estimates.

• Pumpkin seeds, roasted, 28 g: 156 mg
• Chia seeds, 28 g: 111 mg
• Almonds, dry roasted, 28 g: 80 mg
• Spinach, cooked, ½ cup: 78 mg
• Cashews, dry roasted, 28 g: 74 mg
• Peanuts, oil roasted, ¼ cup: 63 mg
• Soy milk, plain or vanilla, 1 cup: 61 mg
• Black beans, cooked, ½ cup: 60 mg
• Edamame, young soybeans, shelled, cooked, ½ cup: 50 mg
• Peanut butter, 2 tablespoons: 49 mg
• Potato, baked with skin, 99 g: 43 mg
• Rice, brown, cooked, ½ cup: 42 mg
• Yogurt, plain, low fat, 227 g: 42 mg
• Breakfast cereal, fortified with 10% magnesium content, 1 serving: 42 mg
• Quick oats, 1 pack: 36 mg
• Kidney beans, canned, ½ cup: 35 mg
• Banana, 1 medium: 32 mg
• Atlantic salmon, farmed, cooked, 85 g: 26 mg
• Milk, 1 cup: 24-27 mg
• Raisins, ½ cup: 23 mg
• Whole grain bread, 1 slice: 23 mg
• Avocado, diced, ½ cup: 22 mg
• Chicken breast, roasted, 85 g: 22 mg
• Beef minced meat, 90% lean, pan-fried, 85 g: 20 mg
• Broccoli, chopped and boiled, ½ cup: 12 mg
• Rice, white, cooked, ½ cup: 10 mg
• Apple, 1 medium: 9 mg
• Carrot, raw, 1 medium: 7 mg (7, 32).

5. Why Do Most of Us Do Not Get Enough Magnesium from Food, and Why Are We No Longer Exactly Sure How Much Magnesium Our Daily Diet Contains?

Despite the fact that magnesium plays a vital role in human health and well-being, yet roughly 60% of people fail to consume the recommended daily intake—310 to 420 mg for adults, depending on gender.

Even more concerning, about 19% of individuals get less than half of this amount. However, modern dietary habits alone do not fully explain magnesium deficiency. Agricultural practices are also significant contributors.

So, why can’t most people obtain enough magnesium from their diet?

• Age: As the years pass, our bodies face a variety of challenges — and one of them can be a gradual decline in magnesium absorption. It’s simply part of the natural aging process, but it’s something worth keeping an eye on.
• Increased Demands on the Body: If you’re physically active, whether through regular workouts or a physically demanding job, your body naturally needs more magnesium. Some of it is lost through sweat, and stress can also speed up the depletion of your magnesium reserves. In short: the busier or more stressed your life, the harder your body works to keep magnesium levels up.
• Medications: Certain medications can interfere with magnesium absorption or contribute to magnesium loss, which may make it harder to maintain optimal levels.
• It`s almost impossible to eat that much of the foods that contain magnesium: The foods richest in magnesium include leafy green vegetables (approximately 78 mg per serving), nuts and almonds (around 80 mg per serving), and whole grains (close to 46 mg per serving). Still, none of these on their own provide a sufficiently large portion to meet the daily recommended intake. Moreover, these foods are seldom consumed in quantities large enough to guarantee adequate magnesium levels. Consider: do you typically eat, for example, 2.5 cups of spinach or a whole 100-gram pack of almonds daily? If yes, your magnesium stores are likely sufficient, and you should keep it up. However, it is essential to be aware of the following (23).
• Why is it difficult to determine exactly how much magnesium our food actually contains? The rising demand for food production has led to modern agricultural methods that diminish the soil’s ability to naturally replenish minerals like magnesium. The use of phosphate fertilizers compounds this issue by creating water-insoluble magnesium phosphate complexes, further depleting soil mineral content. Over the past century, many fruits and vegetables have lost substantial amounts of minerals and nutrients; estimates suggest that magnesium levels in vegetables have decreased by as much as 80-90% in countries like the USA and the UK. Notably, the USDA’s mineral content data for fruits and vegetables has not been updated since 2000—and possibly even longer (23). 

Because of this, the accuracy of mineral content data should be re-examined in light of ongoing demineralization trends. Given the advancements in agricultural techniques and fertilization practices over the past 50 years, there is a clear need for a dedicated initiative to reassess and validate the current mineral and nutrient composition of commonly consumed fruits and vegetables. This updated knowledge is crucial for understanding the true magnesium intake from our diets today (23).

So, one of the safest — and most rewarding — things you can do is to grow your own chlorophyll-rich greens, tending to them with love and care, and keeping them free from chemicals.

6. Magnesium Absorption – What It Depends On, and Which Other Nutrients and Foods Can Help the Body Absorb It Better

6. 1. Form of magnesium

Several factors influence the absorption of magnesium, one of the most important being the solubility of its form (inorganic salt, organic salt, chelate, etc.). Generally, higher solubility correlates with better absorption. As mentioned earlier, magnesium glycinate is considered one of the most well-absorbed forms. Some studies suggest that organic magnesium salts may have slightly higher bioavailability than inorganic ones, though not all studies confirm this.

6. 2. Gastrointestinal pH

The pH level in the gastrointestinal tract also plays a role, as it directly affects magnesium solubility. A lower pH increases solubility, but as magnesium moves further down the small intestine, the pH rises toward 7.4 in the ileum, making absorption increasingly difficult. Here again, liposomal magnesium deserves a mention, as it has a clever way of bypassing some of these gastrointestinal challenges.

6. 3. Dosage and distribution

How much magnesium you take at once matters – absorption efficiency decreases with very large single doses. It is therefore better to take magnesium in several smaller amounts throughout the day rather than one big dose.

6. 4. Food matrix and digestive environment

The type of food magnesium is consumed with, and the internal “climate” of your digestive system, also matter. Factors that can enhance magnesium absorption by helping water flow through the intestinal mucosa include simple sugars, medium-chain triglycerides, proteins, and small amounts of certain indigestible carbohydrates such as resistant starch, oligosaccharides, inulin, mannitol, and lactulose.
On the other hand, some compounds inhibit absorption, such as large amounts of other minerals (e.g., excessive calcium or zinc), partially fermentable fibers (like hemicellulose), non-fermentable fibers (cellulose, lignin), phytates, and oxalates.

Solid foods can also improve absorption by slowing down gastrointestinal transit time, giving the body more opportunity to absorb magnesium. However, while dietary fiber from sources such as cellulose, pectin, and inulin may not directly reduce magnesium status, it can increase magnesium excretion through feces.

6. 5. Vitamins and other minerals

Magnesium absorption can be supported by:

• B-group vitamins, especially B6, which influences how much magnesium actually enters the cells;
• vitamins C and D;
• and minerals such as calcium, potassium, and sodium in balanced amounts.

6. 6. Daily needs

For reference, the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for magnesium is 400–420 mg for adult men and 310–360 mg for adult women. During pregnancy and breastfeeding, the daily requirement may increase to about 400 mg.

For best results, magnesium supplements are ideally taken with food so that the other substances needed for absorption are present. Ecosh’s magnesium glycinate product, for example, contains bioactive vitamin B6 (pyridoxal-5′-phosphate) to help enhance magnesium uptake.

Why are bioactive forms good? Bioactive forms are already in a state suitable for metabolism, so your body doesn’t need to spend precious energy converting them from an inactive to an active form – a valuable advantage when your system is already under strain.

7. What Qualities Should a High-Quality Magnesium Supplement Have?

When choosing a magnesium supplement—or, in fact, any dietary supplement—it’s always important to follow the key recommendations that define a truly high-quality product.

A magnesium supplement can be considered high-quality if it meets the following criteria:

• Does not contain magnesium stearate. Magnesium stearate is not a source of magnesium. It’s an unnecessary additive with no nutritional value, and it’s best avoided.
• Contains magnesium in an easily absorbable form, which is also well utilized by the body. When it comes to a magnesium supplement, it’s not just the total amount of magnesium or elemental magnesium that matters—the preparation must also absorb efficiently. Furthermore, while good absorption is essential, it’s equally important that the nutrient can effectively reach key tissues and cells. This is where a list of different forms of magnesium and their properties—coming up shortly in this article—will help guide you.
• Does not cause uncomfortable side effects. Many magnesium preparations are also used as laxatives or antacids. Since this is not usually the main goal when taking magnesium as a supplement, it’s wise to avoid formulations primarily designed to relieve constipation or promote digestion.
• Comes in a convenient, easy-to-dose form. A good supplement should be simple to take and fit easily into a busy daily routine. The dosage instructions should be clear, straightforward, and easy to follow.

8. What Does Magnesium Chelate Mean?

Magnesium chelate is a general term for any form of magnesium in which the mineral is bound—usually to an amino acid. Chelated forms of magnesium are well absorbed, and one example is magnesium glycinate.

The amino acids most commonly used for chelating magnesium are aspartic acid and glycine. Most chelated forms of magnesium contain about 10–20% magnesium bound to 80–90% amino acid.

This form of magnesium is produced through a fermentation process (34).

9. What Does Elemental Magnesium Content Mean, and Why Is It Important?

When it comes to magnesium supplements, one of the biggest sources of confusion is the amount of elemental magnesium in the product. Elemental magnesium content refers to the actual amount of magnesium present in the supplement.

For example, if you take magnesium L-threonate, then by taking 3 capsules (1 capsule = 600 mg), you consume 1,800 mg of magnesium L-threonate, which contains only 162 mg of pure magnesium. Below, we list the amount of elemental magnesium found in different forms of magnesium.

Elemental magnesium content in various magnesium forms:

1. Magnesium glycinate – contains 14.1% elemental magnesium. For example, 709 mg of magnesium glycinate provides 100 mg of pure magnesium.
2. Magnesium gluconate – contains 5% elemental magnesium. For example, a 500 mg tablet provides 27 mg of pure magnesium.
3. Magnesium citrate – contains 16% elemental magnesium. For example, 400 mg of magnesium citrate provides 64 mg of pure magnesium.
4. Magnesium taurate – contains 8.9% elemental magnesium. For example, 1,121 mg of magnesium taurate provides 100 mg of pure magnesium.
5. Magnesium carbonate – contains 29–45% elemental magnesium.
6. Magnesium chloride – contains 12% elemental magnesium. For example, a 535 mg tablet provides 64 mg of pure magnesium.
7. Magnesium lactate – contains 12% elemental magnesium. For example, 1 g of magnesium lactate provides 120 mg of pure magnesium.
8. Magnesium L-threonate – contains 9% elemental magnesium. For example, 1,800 mg of magnesium L-threonate provides 162 mg of pure magnesium.
9. Magnesium malate – contains 15% elemental magnesium. For example, 1,500 mg of magnesium malate provides 225 mg of pure magnesium.
10. Magnesium orotate – contains 6.9%–7.5% elemental magnesium.
11. Magnesium oxide – contains 61% elemental magnesium. For example, a 400 mg tablet provides 242 mg of pure magnesium.
12. Magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) – contains 10% elemental magnesium. For example, 1 g of magnesium sulfate provides 98.6 mg of pure magnesium. Sometimes, for calming purposes, it is taken orally—by dissolving 2 to 4 teaspoons in 237 ml of water and consuming twice a day. Magnesium sulfate is also used intravenously (e.g., for asthma or preeclampsia), in which case 100 ml of injection solution contains 1 g of pure magnesium.
13. Magnesium glycerophosphate – contains 12.5% elemental magnesium.
14. Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia) – contains 42% elemental magnesium. For example, 400 mg per 5 ml of oral suspension provides 167 mg of pure magnesium.
15. Magnesium glutamate – no data available.
16. Magnesium aspartate – magnesium aspartate hydrochloride, sold among others under the brand name Maginex DS, contains about 10% elemental magnesium. For example, 1,230 mg of Maginex DS granules provides 122 mg of magnesium.

But that is by no means all, and the amount of elemental magnesium contained in a particular form of magnesium does not necessarily reflect how much magnesium actually reaches your body. Everything depends on what you want to achieve by taking the magnesium supplement!

Just because one supplement contains a higher amount of elemental magnesium than another doesn’t automatically mean you will gain greater benefits from it or that it will be better absorbed. Additionally, some well-absorbed magnesium supplements may have a strong stool-softening effect, which might not be suitable for everyone.

10. Why Is Absorption Important, and What Does Bioavailability Mean?

Absorption is one of the most crucial properties when it comes to magnesium supplements. If you take a magnesium supplement every day but your body cannot easily absorb or utilize that specific form of magnesium, you will miss out on all the benefits magnesium has to offer.

On the other hand, if the magnesium is absorbed well and your body can readily use it—that is what we call bioavailability—then taking the supplement will bring real health benefits.

For most magnesium supplements, the body can absorb only a small percentage of the magnesium (for example, magnesium oxide), whereas some forms are absorbed in much higher amounts (such as magnesium citrate, magnesium glycinate, magnesium malate, magnesium taurate, and others). Additionally, each form contains different amounts of elemental magnesium.

We will now take a closer look at which magnesium forms are better absorbed and which are less so.

11. Full Magnesium Guide - Which Magnesium Forms Are the Best? Different Types of Magnesium and How They Are Absorbed — Why Magnesium Glycinate and Magnesium Citrate Are Among the Top Choices, While Magnesium Oxide Falls Short

When searching for a quality magnesium supplement, we often face such a wide range of options that it’s easy to become confused and unsure which one might be the best fit for us. What makes it even more complicated is that there is no 100% perfect magnesium supplement.

Every magnesium supplement exists in compound forms, where magnesium is always bound to another ion — a salt, acid, or amino acid chelate — that affects its absorption and bioavailability. The reason is quite simple: combining magnesium ions with these compounds keeps magnesium stable and in a form suitable for consumption.

However, each form behaves differently in our body depending on what it’s combined with. And this is exactly the point — different magnesium forms can even have distinct clinical uses.

Magnesium forms mainly differ in three important aspects:

• Their reasons for use, or medical indications
• Their bioavailability, meaning how easily the body can absorb a specific form
• Their possible side effects

Some forms are definitely more effective and better absorbed than others. Among the many types, liposomal magnesium citrate and magnesium glycinate stand out as some of the safest and most bioavailable options, while magnesium oxide unfortunately ranks among the least effective.

Choosing the right form depends on your personal health goals and needs. Magnesium glycinate is often favored for its calming properties and positive impact on sleep quality, making it a great choice if you’re looking to relax and unwind.

Liposomal magnesium citrate, on the other hand, offers quicker absorption and supports energy production, ideal for those seeking vitality and stamina.

Other well-absorbed forms like magnesium taurate and magnesium malate bring their own unique advantages.

Now we arrive at the core of the discussion, where we’ll take a closer look at which magnesium forms exist, how they differ, and which can be considered better or worse absorbed.

As always, consulting your healthcare provider before starting any supplement is a wise idea — someone who understands your personal health profile and can guide you toward the form that fits you best.

The magnesium forms, each of which we will discuss in more detail shortly, are the following:

1. Magnesium glycinate (magnesium bound to two molecules of the amino acid glycine)
2. Magnesium gluconate (magnesium salt of gluconic acid, which belongs to the fruit acid group)
3. Magnesium citrate (magnesium salt of citric acid)
4. Magnesium taurate (magnesium salt of taurine)
5. Magnesium carbonate (magnesium bound to carbonate, a salt of carbonic acid)
6. Magnesium chloride (magnesium bound to chloride, a salt of hydrochloric acid)
7. Magnesium lactate (magnesium salt of lactic acid)
8. Magnesium L-threonate (magnesium salt of L-threonic acid)
9. Magnesium malate (magnesium salt of malic acid)
10. Magnesium orotate (magnesium salt of orotic acid)
11. Magnesium oxide (magnesium oxide salt)
12. Magnesium sulfate (magnesium salt with sulfate as the counter ion)
13. Magnesium glycerophosphate (magnesium salt of orthophosphoric acid)
14. Magnesium hydroxide (magnesium atom bound to two hydroxyl groups)
15. Magnesium glutamate (magnesium salt of glutamic acid)
16. Magnesium aspartate (magnesium salt of aspartic acid)

Choosing whether to prefer magnesium glycinate, liposomal magnesium citrate, magnesium malate, or magnesium threonate depends on your personal health needs.

Magnesium glycinate may be a good choice if you seek something calming and want to improve your sleep quality. Liposomal magnesium citrate might suit better those who want faster absorption and an energy boost. Magnesium taurate supports cellular, heart, and vascular health, while magnesium malate is ideal for those who want to support their body’s energy production.

If you want to benefit from all these excellent forms of magnesium, then the magnesium complex Magnesium PRO + Mumio might be just right for you!

11. 1. Which Magnesium Form Should You Prefer?

The top magnesium forms widely recognized for their effectiveness are: magnesium glycinate, magnesium citrate, magnesium taurate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium chloride, magnesium L-threonate, and magnesium malate.

11. 1. 1. Magnesium Glycinate

To clarify, magnesium glycinate is also known as magnesium diglycinate, magnesium bisglycinate, or magnesium bisglycinate chelate — all names for the same compound. This is a chelated form where magnesium is bound to glycine, an amino acid, which results in excellent absorption and bioavailability. Magnesium glycinate stands out as one of the most bioavailable forms and is also among those least likely to cause diarrhea. It’s considered the safest choice for correcting long-term magnesium deficiency.

Research shows that magnesium glycinate is particularly beneficial for people with gastrointestinal conditions like diarrhea or for those who have undergone bowel resection surgery, since it is absorbed well throughout various parts of the intestines (26, 27).

Thanks to its safety profile for long-term use, magnesium glycinate is often recommended as the best form in cases of severe deficiency.

Magnesium glycinate promotes relaxation, soothes muscles, and supports restful sleep—making it ideal to take 30 minutes to an hour before bedtime. It is also an essential ingredient in Ecosh’s magnesium complex, Magnesium PRO + MUMIO.

Here are its main advantages:

• Calming Effect: Magnesium glycinate is prized for its calming properties, largely due to glycine, a neurotransmitter that helps improve sleep quality and reduce anxiety. This is why it’s best taken in the evening.
• Digestive Support: Glycine may protect the lining of the digestive tract, making magnesium glycinate a great option for those with digestive issues.
• Excellent Absorption: It is among the best absorbed magnesium forms, potentially more effective than citrate when addressing deficiency.
• Minimal Laxative Effect: Unlike forms like magnesium oxide, magnesium glycinate rarely causes laxative side effects, which benefits those sensitive to such effects.

11. 1. 2. Magnesium Citrate

Magnesium citrate is another popular choice, often appreciated for its good bioavailability and affordability. It’s a compound formed from citric acid and magnesium, containing roughly up to 16% elemental magnesium. Because citric acid has a mild laxative effect, magnesium citrate not only supplements magnesium but can also help relieve constipation.

This form suits people with constipation or certain colon or rectal issues but may not be ideal for those with naturally loose bowels. However, the liposomal form of magnesium citrate is an exception—the liposome shields the magnesium from causing laxative side effects and enhances absorption.

Magnesium citrate is also part of Ecosh’s Magnesium PRO + MUMIO complex. You can find more about liposomal magnesium.

The liposomal form boasts several benefits:

• Increased Bioavailability: Liposomes (fat-like particles) help magnesium penetrate cell membranes more efficiently, boosting absorption.
• Faster Absorption: Thanks to liposomal technology, magnesium citrate enters the bloodstream more quickly, providing faster relief from deficiency symptoms.
• Ideal for Active Lifestyles: It supports quick recovery after physical exertion by helping reduce muscle cramps and improving muscle function.
• Supports Energy Production: Magnesium citrate activates ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the cell’s main energy source, with the liposomal form enhancing this process even further.

11. 1. 3. Magnesium Taurate

Magnesium taurate is a compound made from magnesium and taurine, an amino acid, and is often praised as one of the best magnesium forms for supporting heart and vascular health. Together, magnesium and taurine work to stabilize cell membranes, making this form easily absorbed without causing laxative effects. You’ll also find magnesium taurate in Ecosh’s Magnesium PRO + MUMIO complex.

Quick benefits of magnesium taurate:

• Excellent absorption.
• Contains taurine, which helps stabilize and protect cell membranes.
• Particularly beneficial for cardiovascular health.
• Does not have a laxative effect, making it gentle on digestion.

11. 1. 4. Magnesium Carbonate

Magnesium carbonate contains roughly 29-45% elemental magnesium and enjoys popularity as a bioavailable magnesium form. Inside the body, it transforms into magnesium chloride once it meets stomach hydrochloric acid. Due to its antacid qualities, magnesium carbonate can be a smart choice for those dealing with digestive issues or acid reflux.

Here’s a brief overview of magnesium carbonate’s perks:

• Converts to magnesium chloride within the body.
• Acts as an antacid, neutralizing stomach acid (note: this may affect how other medications work).
• Supports people with digestive problems and acid reflux.
• Contains a relatively high percentage of pure magnesium.

11. 1. 5. Magnesium Chloride

Magnesium chloride has about 12% elemental magnesium but boasts impressive absorption — much better than magnesium oxide, which contains nearly five times more pure magnesium but is absorbed less efficiently. Don’t confuse chloride with chlorine gas; chloride ions can actually support kidney function and help speed up a slow metabolism.

In brief, magnesium chloride:

• Absorbs very well despite its lower elemental magnesium content.
• Supports kidney health and boosts metabolism.
• Great for those needing enhanced magnesium uptake.
• May help accelerate sluggish metabolism.
• Caution: Taking too much magnesium chloride can lead to diarrhea.

11. 1. 6. Magnesium L-Threonate

Magnesium L-threonate is a newer magnesium supplement that’s quickly gaining attention for its promising absorption and ability to effectively reach tissues and cells. Although not yet widely available in Estonia, it’s catching eyes for its unique benefits.

Key highlights of magnesium L-threonate:

• A fresh form known for excellent absorption and tissue/cell uptake.
• A smart pick for supporting brain health and boosting cognitive functions.

11. 1. 7. Magnesium Malate

Magnesium malate is an excellent option for those feeling fatigued. It combines magnesium with malic acid — a natural fruit acid found in most of our body’s cells. Malic acid plays a crucial role in enzymes involved in ATP synthesis, which is the powerhouse process behind energy production. Thanks to the easy break-up of magnesium and malic acid’s ionic bonds, magnesium malate dissolves well and is highly bioavailable. You’ll also find magnesium malate in Ecosh’s Magnesium PRO + MUMIO complex.

A quick summary of magnesium malate’s benefits:

• Packed with malic acid, vital for ATP production and energy boost.
• Great solubility and bioavailability for effective absorption.
• Perfect for fighting fatigue and supporting sustained energy.

11. 2. Magnesium Forms to Approach with Caution

The magnesium forms generally regarded as least effective or potentially problematic include magnesium oxide, magnesium sulfate, magnesium glycerophosphate, magnesium hydroxide, magnesium glutamate, and magnesium aspartate.

11. 2. 1. Magnesium Oxide: Magnesium Oxide Salt

Magnesium oxide is magnesium that is not chelated but is bound to an organic or fatty acid. It contains up to 60% elemental magnesium, of which only about 4% is absorbed, and the preparation also has a laxative effect.

Magnesium oxide is a form of magnesium that is affordable and contains a very high percentage of elemental magnesium, but the body can absorb only a very small portion of it. Magnesium oxide has antacid, laxative, and smooth muscle relaxing effects on blood vessels.

This compound is also found in “milk of magnesia” and essentially shares the same benefits as magnesium hydroxide. When water is present (and our bodies contain plenty of water), magnesium oxide converts to magnesium hydroxide.

Long-term use of magnesium oxide may cause kidney problems and diarrhea. In Estonia, several dietary supplements are still available that are affordable precisely because they contain the cheapest raw material – magnesium oxide.

Summary of the main properties of magnesium oxide:

• Uses and effects:

      - Restoration of magnesium stores. Used to prevent and treat magnesium deficiency.

      - Antacid, laxative, and smooth muscle relaxing effects on blood vessels.

      - Commonly used as an inexpensive raw material.

• Absorption: Contains a large amount of elemental magnesium, but absorption and bioavailability are low.
• Caution! May cause diarrhea and kidney problems!
• Chemical formula: The chemical formula of magnesium oxide is MgO.
• Synonyms:

      - Oxomagnesium

      - Magnesium oxalate

Based on current information, we cannot see benefits of magnesium oxide and therefore do not recommend this form of magnesium to anyone.

11. 2. 2. Magnesium Sulfate (Epsom Salt): a Magnesium Salt with Sulfate Anion

Magnesium sulfate, commonly known as Epsom salt, is a chemical compound composed of magnesium, sulfur, and oxygen. Magnesium constitutes about 10% of the chemical composition of Epsom salts.

Essentially, Epsom salts contain magnesium sulfate, while magnesium flakes contain magnesium chloride.

Despite its name, Epsom salt is a completely different compound from table salt. It was likely named “salt” due to its chemical structure.

Magnesium sulfate is an effective remedy for constipation but is not recommended as a long-term magnesium source because it is easy to overdose. Epsom salt can be taken orally as a magnesium supplement or laxative, or used externally as a bath salt. Magnesium sulfate is also used in the food industry as a thickener and flavor enhancer.

Although there are no official guidelines on how much magnesium sulfate one should take, many brands recommend adults consume 2–6 teaspoons (10–30 g) dissolved in water daily at most, or about 1–2 teaspoons (5–10 g) for children.

When added to bath water, Epsom salt is generally considered safe. If you have never tried an Epsom salt bath before, first test magnesium sulfate dissolved in water on your skin. Avoid Epsom baths if you have open wounds.

Summary of magnesium sulfate’s key properties:

• Uses and effects:

      - Restores magnesium levels. Used to prevent and treat magnesium deficiency and for muscle relaxation primarily externally (e.g., added to bath water), but occasionally also internally (which is generally not recommended). Interestingly, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) supports short-term use of magnesium sulfate (administered via injection) to prevent and treat seizures in women with preeclampsia (high blood pressure during pregnancy) or eclampsia (when high blood pressure during pregnancy causes seizures). It is used as a flavor enhancer and thickener in the food industry.

      - Also known as Epsom salt.

      - Contains a high amount of magnesium.

      - Has a laxative effect.

• Absorption: Compared to sodium sulfate, magnesium sulfate appears to be less completely and less stably absorbed. There is insufficient data on absorption through the skin.
• Caution! Due to unstable and incomplete absorption, it may be potentially harmful and cause more adverse effects. Kidney failure increases systemic magnesium accumulation, which can ultimately lead to hypermagnesemia.
• Chemical formula: MgSO₄
• Synonyms:

      - Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate,
      - Epsom salts,
      - Anhydrous magnesium sulfate.

11. 2. 3. Magnesium Glycerophosphate: Magnesium Salt of Orthophosphoric Acid

Magnesium glycerophosphate is a fat-soluble magnesium salt that is bioavailable and well tolerated as a magnesium source. The organic glycerophosphate ion itself is an important nutritional source—it provides phosphorus and helps improve cell membrane permeability. It is also one of the least laxative forms of magnesium.

For example, researchers compared the laxative effects in 20 volunteers who received either a placebo or 400 mg of magnesium in the form of 11 different salts over 28 days. Magnesium sulfate caused diarrhea in 96% of cases, while magnesium lactate caused it in 32%.

The best tolerated form was magnesium glycerophosphate, with a diarrhea incidence of only 7%, essentially the same as placebo. However, excessive intake of this form should still be avoided because phosphate may promote certain metabolic diseases, especially kidney disorders.

It is also advisable to avoid this form if you consume a lot of processed foods containing high amounts of phosphate-based additives. Additionally, magnesium glycerophosphate is more expensive than other forms of magnesium.

Summary of main properties of magnesium glycerophosphate:

• Uses and main characteristics:

      - Restores magnesium levels. Used to prevent and treat magnesium deficiency.

      - The organic glycerophosphate ion is a valuable nutritional source (provides phosphorus, improves cell membrane permeability).

      - Non-laxative.

      - Expensive.

• Absorption: Well absorbed.
• Caution! Excessive intake may promote certain metabolic diseases, especially kidney issues. Use cautiously if you consume many processed foods high in phosphates.
• Chemical formula: C₃H₇MgO₆P
• Synonyms:

      - Magnesium 1-glycerophosphate

      - Magnesium alpha-glycerophosphate

      - Magnesium; 2,3-dihydroxypropyl phosphate

Although this form is well absorbed and causes less diarrhea than most other magnesium forms, we cannot recommend magnesium glycerophosphate due to its possible side effects.

11. 2. 4. Magnesium Hydroxide: Magnesium Atom Bonded to a Hydroxide Group

Magnesium hydroxide is an inorganic, poorly water-soluble white powder that naturally occurs as brucite and is most commonly available as a powder or suspension. It can be produced by various methods, such as hydrating magnesium oxide, precipitating from seawater or brine, or adding calcium hydroxide to seawater.

According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), magnesium hydroxide solutions have both antacid and laxative properties. This category includes products like Milk of Magnesia.

Magnesium hydroxide is therefore primarily used short-term as an antacid (a substance that neutralizes stomach acid) or as a laxative to relieve constipation, usually in the form of an oral liquid suspension or chewable tablets. It belongs to a class of medications known as osmotic laxatives.

Because magnesium hydroxide reacts with acids, it is also called a “weak base.” So, if your stomach produces excess acid, magnesium hydroxide intake can help by neutralizing that acid and relieving related symptoms. However, since magnesium hydroxide also has a laxative effect, taking large amounts to treat stomach acid may instead cause diarrhea.

In the food industry, it is used as an acidity regulator and, due to its relatively good absorption, can also be used to address magnesium deficiency.

Since magnesium hydroxide can contain up to 42% elemental magnesium, it should be taken carefully to avoid overdosing.

Summary of magnesium hydroxide properties:

• Uses and main characteristics:

      - Acts as a laxative and is mostly used short-term for occasional constipation in both children and adults.

      - Also used for restoring magnesium levels in deficiency, neutralizing stomach acid, and as an acidity regulator in food production.

• Absorption: Usually, only a small amount of magnesium from magnesium hydroxide is absorbed in the intestines (except in cases of magnesium deficiency).
• Caution! Long-term or excessive use for constipation may cause persistent constipation and laxative dependency. Overuse may lead to ongoing diarrhea and dehydration. Magnesium hydroxide can be harmful if absorbed through the skin and may cause respiratory irritation if inhaled. Repeated exposure can cause kidney damage and gastrointestinal disturbances. Because magnesium is primarily excreted via the kidneys, long-term daily use of Milk of Magnesia in individuals with kidney failure may theoretically cause hypermagnesemia.
• Chemical formula and E-number: Magnesium hydroxide’s chemical formula is Mg(OH)₂ and its E-number is E528.
• Synonyms:

      - Milk of Magnesia

      - Magnesium hydrate

      - Magnesia magma

      - Magnesium dihydroxide

Magnesium hydroxide is suitable only for short-term use for problems related to excess stomach acid and constipation.

11. 2. 5. Magnesium Glutamate (Magnesium Salt of Glutamic Acid) and Magnesium Aspartate (Magnesium Salt of Aspartic Acid)

Magnesium glutamate and magnesium aspartate are forms that it is generally advisable to avoid if possible, because they contain glutamic acid or aspartic acid. Some data suggest that glutamic acid may become neurotoxic in certain cases, and aspartic acid may contain harmful aspartame.

However, there are also differing opinions. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), for example, magnesium aspartate may act as a neurotransmitter and is naturally found in both animal products and plants (especially sugarcane and sugar beet).

Aspartate is a vitamin-like substance known as an amino acid. As a dietary supplement, aspartate is combined with minerals and is available as copper aspartate, iron aspartate, magnesium aspartate, manganese aspartate, potassium aspartate, and zinc aspartate.

“Aspartates are used to enhance the absorption of these minerals and to improve athletic performance. Some forms are used to reduce brain damage caused by liver cirrhosis (hepatic encephalopathy), when administered intravenously by healthcare professionals,” NIH explains. This type of magnesium is said to be well absorbed by the body.

Certain brands of magnesium aspartate are also used to treat symptoms related to excess stomach acid, such as gastritis, heartburn, and acid reflux.

Summary of magnesium glutamate and magnesium aspartate properties:

• Uses and main characteristics: Restoration of magnesium levels. Used to prevent and treat magnesium deficiency.
• Absorption: Well absorbed.
• Caution! Contain glutamic or aspartic acid, which may be harmful. Therefore, these forms should ideally be avoided if possible.
• Chemical formulas:

      - Magnesium glutamate: C₅H₇MgNO₄

      - Magnesium aspartate: C₈H₁₂MgN₂O₈

• Magnesium glutamate synonyms:

      - Monomagnesium diglutamate

      - Magnesium L-glutamate

      - Magnesium; (2S)-2-aminopentanedioate

      - Magnesium L-glutamate tetrahydrate

• Magnesium aspartate synonyms:

      - Magnesium L-aspartate

      - Aspartic acid magnesium salt

      - Magnesium hydroaspartate

Although magnesium glutamate and magnesium aspartate are considered to have fairly good absorption, we currently recommend avoiding these forms due to their potential harmful effects.

12. Ways to Take Magnesium – Should You Choose Tablets, Capsules, Liquid Magnesium, Magnesium Powder, Magnesium Flakes, or Epsom Salt?

Just as there are different forms of magnesium, there are also many different ways to take it. Below, we explain what benefits each option may offer.

12. 1. Magnesium Tablets (for internal use)

To make a magnesium tablet look appealing and taste acceptable, it often needs to be mechanically and chemically processed quite a lot. Tablets are pressed and dried, have various additives (including colorants) mixed in, and have moisture removed.
Because of this, magnesium tablets tend to contain a fair number of additional ingredients you may not actually need.

12. 2. Magnesium Capsules (for internal use)

While encapsulating one of the best forms of magnesium — magnesium glycinate — can be a bit tricky and requires some excipients, magnesium capsules still require far less processing than magnesium tablets.

They also need fewer additives overall, which makes magnesium in capsule form a more health-friendly choice compared to tablets. Another plus is that capsules are generally easier to swallow.

For example, Ecohi’s magnesium glycinate capsules can even be opened and divided, making them suitable for school-aged children. Likewise, Ecohi’s liposomal magnesium and magnesium complex Magnesium PRO + Mumio are both available in capsule form.

12. 3. Liquid Magnesium (for internal use)

Liquid magnesium — such as mineral water or mineral water concentrates — typically contains no additives. For example, Ecohi’s mineral concentrate MINERALEX, which provides magnesium along with other important minerals like sodium, potassium, calcium, and many more, is completely free from chemicals and additives.

However, there are exceptions. For instance, effervescent magnesium drink tablets (similar to other water-soluble vitamin tablets) — the kind you dissolve in water to create a lemonade-like refreshment — often contain a variety of additives, sweeteners, and frequently colorants as well. This means that anyone who prefers to avoid such ingredients should approach this form of magnesium with caution.

12. 4. Magnesium Powder (for internal use)

Depending on the form, magnesium can also be taken in its pure powder form. For example, magnesium citrate is an excellent choice for this, as it dissolves well in water and has a pleasant taste. When hermetically packaged, the powder doesn’t require any additional excipients.

Therefore, magnesium citrate powder can be just as good — or even better — than capsules. Magnesium glycinate, on the other hand (while it may be the best choice for some from a health perspective), does not have a pleasant enough taste to be used in pure powder form.

12. 5. Magnesium Flakes, Epsom Salt, Magnesium Oils, and Magnesium Oil Sprays (for external use)

Magnesium can also be obtained through external use — for example, by adding magnesium flakes or Epsom salt to baths or foot soaks. Magnesium is also available for topical application in the form of magnesium oil or magnesium oil spray.

All of these are intended for external use only. Essentially, magnesium flakes and magnesium oil contain magnesium chloride, while Epsom salts contain magnesium sulfate. Although magnesium chloride is considered to have certain advantages, there is still no firm evidence on how much magnesium the body actually absorbs through the skin. Because of this, topical magnesium use is generally approached with some degree of skepticism.

13. From the Ecosh selection, you will find several of the best magnesium supplement forms, such as: magnesium + B6 (magnesium glycinate), liposomal magnesium (magnesium citrate), magnesium complex with Mumio, and liquid magnesium from ocean water.

You can definitely find a suitable magnesium supplement for yourself in any well-stocked pharmacy, but if you have started to trust specifically the high-quality Ecoshi supplements, then know that our selection includes the most popular, safest, and best-absorbed forms of magnesium such as magnesium glycinate and magnesium citrate (there is also a new magnesium complex that includes not only glycinate and citrate but also ammonium and taurate), which are in turn combined in various ways with other nutrients that enhance magnesium absorption and support its effectiveness. Below is a bit more detailed information.

13. 1. MAGNESIUM GLYCINATE (MAGNESIUM + B6) – Ecoshi magnesium glycinate with vitamin B6

Together with the bioactive vitamins B6 and C that promote absorption, the most effective form of magnesium present in the supplement - magnesium glycinate - contributes to the smooth functioning of the nervous system and muscles. Additionally, the magnesium glycinate + B6 complex helps reduce fatigue and exhaustion. Magnesium glycinate is also included in Ecosh's magnesium complex Magnesium PRO + MUMIO.

How to take Ecoshi MAGNESIUM GLYCINATE: Take 3 capsules a day with food and a glass of water. You can read more about detailed usage instructions here.

13. 2. LIPOSOMAL MAGNESIUM – Ecoshi magnesium citrate (liposomal magnesium)

Liposomal technology allows the creation of supplements that help make nutrients (such as vitamins, minerals) more accessible to tissues and cells, and protect them from premature breakdown in the digestive tract.

Ecoshi liposomal magnesium citrate contributes to effective nervous system function, efficient muscle work, and the reduction of fatigue and exhaustion. Additionally, liposomal magnesium citrate is gentler on the stomach compared to regular magnesium citrate. Magnesium citrate is included in Ecoshi's magnesium complex Magnesium PRO + MUMIO.

How to consume Ecoshi LIPOSOMAL MAGNESIUM: Take 2-4 capsules daily with food and a glass of water. For more detailed consumption instructions, read further here.

13. 3. MINERALEX – Ecosh liquid magnesium from ocean water

Ecoshi liquid magnesium MINERALEX is not just a magnesium dietary supplement; the seawater contained in the mineral water concentrate also naturally includes over 70 other different minerals and trace elements. The unique mineral complex in Ecoshi liquid magnesium is mined from 662 meters deep in the remote waters off the eastern coast of Taiwan.

Only such conditions are those that ensure the purity of ocean water as well as the richness of nutrients and minerals. MINERALEX is an ideal alternative for those who need replenishment of minerals in the body and enjoy drinking mineral water but prefer good things in smaller packages. Making mineral water for yourself is easy!

How to consume MINERALEX: Simply add 1.5 bottle caps (7ml) of Mineralex to 1.5 liters of water. If you only have half a liter of water on hand, then add 0.5 bottle caps of Mineralex to it. For more detailed usage instructions, read further here.

13. 4. MAGNESIUM PRO + MUMIO – Ecoshi magnesium complex containing several of the best forms of magnesium (such as magnesium diglycinate, magnesium citrate, magnesium malate, magnesium taurate) along with Mumio extract, manganese, and vitamin B6.

This magnesium supplement, containing several of the best forms of magnesium (such as magnesium malate, magnesium taurate, magnesium citrate, and magnesium diglycinate), also includes Mumio or Shilajit extract, manganese, and vitamin B6 to enhance the absorption of magnesium.

The Magnesium PRO+MUMIO complex is a complete package for consumption during stress, because in addition to the benefits of magnesium for the nervous system talked about earlier in this context, Mumio or Shilajit also supports mental and cognitive function. Additionally, manganese helps protect your cells from oxidative stress, and vitamin B6 reduces fatigue and exhaustion.

But what exactly is Mumio or Shilajit? In traditional medicine, such as Ayurveda, the popular Mumio or Shilajit (also known as Asphalt) is an organic material that forms in the mountains from the decomposition of rocks and plants, and has historically been used for its healing properties and as a source of energy since ancient times.

 

One of the main advantages of Mumio extract is its ability to help transport minerals through cell membranes, thereby increasing their biological availability. Mumio helps improve the absorption of not only magnesium but also other minerals!

 

Mumio or Shilajit is a rich source of minerals, fulvic acids, and humic acids, and it has several beneficial properties, namely:

• this natural substance supports mental and cognitive function;
• helps maintain urinary tract and prostate health;
• supports fat metabolism; 
• supports sugar metabolism;
• helps normalize body weight; 
• supports sexual function in men and women;
• helps maintain balance and comfort in the menstrual cycle.

How to take MAGNESIUM PRO + MUMIO complex: Take 2-4 capsules per day with food and a glass of water.

14. Why Measuring Magnesium Levels Is Tricky — and Why Deficiency Often Goes Undiagnosed

14. 1. Why a blood test may not tell the full story

The currently accepted “normal” range for serum magnesium — about 0.7 to 1 mmol/l, depending on age — comes from data collected between 1971 and 1974 in the United States, from what were considered healthy individuals aged 1–74 years (23, 29).

However, blood magnesium levels can shift for many reasons. They’re influenced not only by dietary intake and albumin levels, but also by short-term fluctuations — for example, how much magnesium is absorbed or excreted through the kidneys from one day, or even one hour, to the next.

While it’s true that taking a magnesium supplement can raise blood magnesium levels, this doesn’t necessarily mean that your body’s entire magnesium balance is restored. Remember — only about 0.8% of your body’s total magnesium is in your blood. The other 99.2% is stored elsewhere: in your cells, tissues, and bones.

Your body works hard to keep blood magnesium within a narrow range, because even a small drop can increase the risk of a heart attack. Magnesium’s role in muscle function isn’t about building biceps — it’s about keeping vital muscles, like your heart, working smoothly. To protect this, your body will “borrow” magnesium from its deep reserves in tissues and bones, ensuring the blood levels stay stable, even if it leaves those reserves depleted (23, 32).

This is why a standard blood test can so easily mask magnesium deficiency. On paper, your magnesium may look perfectly normal — but if the 99.2% stored in tissues is running low, your body is already running on empty (23, 32).

14. 2. Why a urine test may also fall short

Magnesium levels in urine are part of the body’s natural balancing act. But because magnesium excretion depends on how much is filtered by the kidneys — and on the varying rates of reabsorption and secretion — the numbers don’t necessarily reflect how much magnesium you’ve consumed or how much your body actually has in reserve.

Other factors can also skew the picture, such as the concentration of calcium in your blood plasma and the volume of extracellular fluid in your body (23, 28).

This means that urine analysis results can be misleading, as kidney function and other variables can cause large fluctuations in magnesium output. The same goes for measuring magnesium levels in feces — these readings simply don’t give a clear or complete picture of your true magnesium status (23).

15. Magnesium Overdose and Side Effects

Some research suggests that even relatively high doses of magnesium can be safe, as the body usually eliminates the excess through urine. This is why, in certain exceptional therapeutic situations, daily amounts as high as 800 to 3000 mg may be prescribed. However, these higher doses should never be taken on your own initiative — always consult your healthcare provider or therapist first.

Other studies, however, point out that excessive magnesium intake can indeed lead to unwanted side effects. Below, you’ll find the most common side effects, potential risks, and possible interactions with other medications, along with signs of an overdose.

15. 1. Possible Side Effects

Magnesium supplements can sometimes cause nausea, stomach cramps, or diarrhea, and in many cases may lead to softer stools.

15. 2. Medication Interactions

Magnesium can interact with certain medications, including diuretics, heart medicines, and some antibiotics. If you are taking any of these, it’s important to talk to your healthcare provider before starting magnesium.

15. 3. Health Risks

People with diabetes, bowel disease, heart disease, or kidney problems should seek medical advice before taking magnesium supplements.

15. 4. Signs of Overdose

Symptoms of taking too much magnesium may include nausea, diarrhea, low blood pressure, muscle weakness, and fatigue (30).

15. 5. The Magnesium–Calcium Balance

In the body, magnesium and calcium work in close partnership. Ideally, their ratio should be about 8:1, or at least 4:1 in magnesium’s favor. If calcium levels become disproportionately high without enough magnesium, the calcium may fail to reach the bones — instead accumulating in arteries and tissues, which can contribute to blockages.

16. How Much Magnesium Do We Really Need?

According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), our daily magnesium needs vary depending on age, gender, and life stage (7). Here are the official recommendations:

• Children 1–3 years: 80 mg per day
• Children 4–8 years: 130 mg per day
• Children 9–13 years: 240 mg per day
• Teenagers 14–18 years: boys 410 mg per day, girls 360 mg per day
• Adults 19+ years: men 400–420 mg per day, women 310–320 mg per day
• Pregnant women: 350–360 mg per day
• Nursing mothers: 310–320 mg per day

These numbers give a good general guideline — but it’s worth remembering that individual needs can vary. Factors like diet, lifestyle, stress levels, and certain health conditions can all influence how much magnesium your body actually uses and needs each day.

17. Magnesium and Children - Why Magnesium Matters for Children

Magnesium is just as vital for children as it is for adults — in fact, it quietly supports over 300 different chemical reactions happening in a child’s body every single day. It fuels metabolism, helping cells turn the carbohydrates your child eats into usable energy, and it’s a key partner for other vitamins and minerals, making sure they can do their jobs effectively.

Magnesium and calcium work in harmony to keep muscles functioning as they should: calcium triggers the contraction, while magnesium allows the muscle to relax fully. This same teamwork extends to bone health — magnesium helps activate vitamin D and supports calcium in building strong, resilient bones.

It also plays an important role in maintaining a steady heart rhythm, protecting dental health, supporting the immune system during times of stress, and even helping your child drift off to a restful sleep thanks to its natural calming influence.

17. 1. Magnesium Deficiency in Children

While magnesium deficiency hasn’t traditionally been seen as a major concern in children, today’s diet trends tell a different story. As more and more little ones rely on heavily processed foods, low magnesium intake is becoming increasingly common.

Children with digestive disorders such as celiac disease, chronic diarrhea, or type 2 diabetes are especially at risk (31).

Signs of Magnesium Deficiency in Children

Early signs may include:

• Loss of appetite
• Nausea or vomiting
• Fatigue and general weakness
• If deficiency worsens, symptoms can progress to:
• Numbness or tingling
• Sleep difficulties
• Muscle twitches, cramps, or spasms
• In severe cases, magnesium deficiency may also cause:
• Irregular heart rhythms
• Behavioral changes such as mood swings, irritability, hyperactivity, difficulty concentrating, insomnia, or anxiety

Research has linked inadequate magnesium stores in children to these behavioral concerns, and some studies suggest that increasing magnesium intake can help improve them (31).

If your child shows any of these signs, it’s worth talking to your pediatrician or a registered dietitian. Addressing nutrition — particularly magnesium intake — can be a powerful first step in supporting both their physical health and emotional well-being.

17. 2. Magnesium for Children – Does My Child Need a Magnesium Supplement?

While the ideal way to meet magnesium needs is always through a nourishing, balanced diet, there are times when a supplement may be worth considering. This can be especially true if your child has dietary restrictions that limit their intake of magnesium-rich foods, or if they struggle with constipation — a common reason magnesium supplementation is explored (31).

If you’re thinking about giving your child a magnesium supplement to restore healthy levels, it’s important to speak with your pediatrician first. They can guide you toward the right form and dosage for your child’s specific needs, ensuring safe and effective support (31).

Source: Dietitians.ca

18. In Conclusion

Magnesium is one of the body’s quiet heroes — working in the background to keep your heart steady, your mind calm, your muscles moving, and your energy flowing. Whether you choose magnesium glycinate for restful sleep, liposomal magnesium citrate for quick absorption and vitality, magnesium taurate for heart health, or magnesium malate for steady energy, the best form for you depends on your personal needs. The key is to select a well-absorbed, gentle form that your body can truly use.

Because magnesium status is influenced by many factors — from diet and digestion to medications and health conditions — even normal lab results don’t always rule out a deficiency. That’s why it’s worth looking at the whole picture: your lifestyle, possible risk factors, and any symptoms you may have. If your diet is heavy in processed foods, soda, or coffee; if you take medications like diuretics or antacids; or if you experience cramps, fatigue, or sleep troubles, it may be time to speak with your healthcare provider about increasing magnesium-rich foods or choosing a quality supplement.

Nourishing your body with the right kind of magnesium is a small act with far-reaching effects. It’s an investment in steadier energy, calmer nights, stronger bones, and a healthier heart. Give your body the magnesium it needs — and let it return the favor in ways you can feel every day.

And remember: in every gentle heartbeat, every restful night, and every spark of energy, magnesium quietly reminds us that taking care of ourselves is a simple, yet profound, act of love.

Authors: Maria-Helena Loik and Cärolin Leht
Pictures: Pexels.com, Pixabay.com. Shuttesrtock.com

Source: Dietitians.ca

Disclaimer: Your well-being matters, so if you are sensitive to any ingredient, please avoid using the products mentioned here. The information shared in this article is for general informational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always check with your healthcare provider before making any changes to your diet, supplements, or medications. Dietary supplements are meant to complement a varied and balanced diet, not replace it. Take care of yourself, listen to your body, and nurture your health with kindness and attention.

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